Carrying capacity reconsidered: from Malthus' population theory to cultural carrying capacity

In this paper the concept of carrying capacity is investigated to provide an improved understanding about its contribution to solve environmental problems. Light is shed on its form, interpretation and application in biology, demography, applied and human ecology. The analysis begins with an examination of the bedrock of carrying capacity which is Malthus' population theory, and its mathematical formulation - the logistic growth equation. The investigation shows Malthus' thinking to be both political and normative. Furthermore, the rigid assumptions of the logistic equation and the uncertainty of its terms are found not to allow an unequivocal calculation and prediction of the upper limits (carrying capacity) of population growth. It is illustrated that in ecology, carrying capacity focuses on the quality of an ecosystem (pressures on it) and corresponding population numbers, and less on equilibrium of populations as in biology. It is shown that carrying capacity, when applied in fields where human activity or human aims are involved, is a complex normative concept influenced by ecological dynamics, human values and aims, institutional settings and management practices. However, it is demonstrated that the discussion about institutional settings, aims, and values does not take place as much as necessary for its useful application and operationalization in such fields. Instead, authors fall back on sustainability, environmental standards or resilience. The main contribution of carrying capacity in applied and human ecology is as a political concept generally highlighting that exponential growth and thus environmental pressures have to be curbed. Carrying capacity is Ear from being a universal constraint. Operationalization will continue to be hampered as long as agreements are missing about which social carrying capacity is to be opted for and when it is considered to have been transgressed. (C) 1999 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.